HISTORY

 





ZIMSEC ORDINARY LEVEL HISTORY: INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS.
syllabus, it is nevertheless important to read up on the History of Europe from about 1850 so that you will better appreciate the factors that led to the outbreak of World War I which is otherwise known as The Great War or the First World War. Important to note are things like the relationship between certain countries e.g. Germany and Britain, France and Britain, Germany and France, Industrial Revolution and Competition in World Trade, Arms race, Alliances, Clashing of interests in the Balkans and colonial rivalry. From the late nineteenth century newspapers and magazines (the media) became an integral part of everyday lives and more and more vocal in analyzing everyday issues. Most notable among the publications that documentation this period is the Punch Magazine which was established in 1842 went out of business in 2002. You will see their cartoonish depiction of Historical events in most History textbooks and they are an invariable part of source questions in the exam. It will be useful for you to take a glance of their cartoon archive here.
Introduction
A world war is a war which is fought between many countries of the world and is geographically spread across the borders of multiple countries. The participation of these countries has to be overt and involve actually involve the engagement of military troops thus World War I is a world war while the fight in Afghanistan is not because the war is in one country against a movement and not a country. It would seem therefore in a world war there has to be multiple countries on both sides and the battlefield span multiple countries. World War I was unlike any other wars recorded in history because advanced machinery and technology such as tanks, heavy ships and artillery were used. A great number of people were killed (estimated at around 20 million civilians and military personnel) and many were wounded. The war was fought between the Allied forces made up of Britain, France, Italy and Japan and the Central Powers: Germany, Austria and Turkey. Because most of these countries had colonies and oversea empires there were a lot of battles and skirmishes were fought in other countries and even on separate continents for example Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) and South Africa (Which were both British colonies) attacked Germany West Africa (now Namibia) a Germany colony.


CAUSES OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR
The causes of World War I can be divided into two broad categories via:
1. Long term causes- these are causes that build up over a period of years sometimes decades before they transform into actual fighting between the parties involved.
2. Short term causes-this is the immediate cause of the conflict in other words the actual trigger. Long term causes. The arms race and militarism (brinkmanship). The alliance system. Imperialism and colonial rivalry. The shifting balance of power. The Balkan nationalism (crisis). Mounting social crisis. The Franco-Prussian hostility. Short term causes The Sarajevo assassination or incident.


1. The arms race and militarism
(Brinkmanship)
Various European powers (notably Britain and Germany) competed to build strong armies, navies and to manufacture weapons. The race was mostly between Germany and Britain a race which Britain was keen to win. However, Germany did her best to catch up with Britain (Britain had become the undisputed leading Naval power when they had displaced the Spanish Armada centuries before) by expanding her own warship production. In 1906 Britain designed the Dreadnought, a battleship which was touted as the most powerful in existence at the time. A year later Germany developed a ship with similar capabilities to match Britain. The race continued up to 1914 and during this period both Britain and Germany increased their navies significantly. Germany also increased her army to 5 million men during the same period. Other countries were also doing the same (increasing their armies) for example Russia had increased her to 50 000 soldiers by 1913, France lengthened her military service from 2 to 3 years during the same period. All major European countries had adopted the conscription (compulsory enlistment) system by 1874. There was a significant increase in military budgets during this period as well. Such developments in militarism meant that when the conflict reached its height in 1914 the countries readily declared war on one another especially since the leaders of the various countries had become more emboldened and practiced brinkmanship as a result of their belief in their military prowess.

The alliance system
After 1870 Europe was left divided into two major opposing camps or alliances. The European powers recognized the fact that there is strength in numbers and thus began making treaties with another based on the alignment of interests. From 1870 a number of treaties were signed by major powers. Eventually Europe was divided up into two major camps/alliances. Triple Alliance (Formerly the Dual Alliance) This was made among Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. It was a follow up to the Dual Alliance between Germany and Austria in which they had promised to assist each other in case either was attacked by Russia. It was signed in 1882. Germany and Austria-Hungary agreed to help Italy if she was attacked by France. Italy also agreed to help Germany if she was attacked by France and Austria- Hungary and Germany agreed to help each other if either was attacked by Russia. Italy viewed the treaty as a guarantee that she would not be attacked by Austria-Hungary rather than a military pact. In 1914 Italy later shifted her allegiance when war broke out in 1914 and joined the Allied powers. Triple Entente (Formerly Entente Cordiale) was made between Britain, France and Russia. In 1894 Russia and France made an agreement to help each other if Germany attacked either of them. . Russia would also support France if she was attacked by Austria- Hungary. In 1904 an agreement was signed between France and Britain. This agreement was known as the Entente Cordiale (French for “cordial agreement”). This agreement did not specify any enemies and it was not a military alliance but meant as a means to foster cooperation between France and Britain. The Cordiale was followed with the signing of the Triple Entente in 1907. It was also not a military alliance but an agreement to work together. However by 1912 the members of the Entente had become so close that if any of them were attacked they would help. Although the Cordiale was not a military pact de jure it evolved into one and later when war broke out it became a de facto military alliance. On the other hand the triple alliance was a military from the beginning. The alliance also agreed that members should remain neutral if a member went to war with only one power. Mounting social crisis European governments encouraged aggressive nationalism as a way of keeping power for example the unification of Germany. Some people in Europe were not aware of what a war would be like since there had been no major war since Prussia had fought with France in the Franco- Prussian war of 1871. This war gave leaders and generals the false impression that war could be swiftly fought and bring about a glorious end to hostilities. This romantic view of war encouraged leaders to adopt a brinkmanship stance and act hastily and aggressively as happened on the day the war broke out. Mobilisation plans of various armies. Almost all the major European powers thought they had the ideal plan in case of hostilities. France had a plan called Plan XVII (Plan 17) (known in French as Plan dix-sept) drafted in 1913 to be put into effect in the event of war between Germany and France. The most famous was Germany’s Schlieffen plan drafted by General Alfred Gra Von Schlieffen who retired in 1906 and died in 1913.The plan was later modified by Von Moltke the Younger. According to the plan Germany would immediately launch a war against France and knock it out before turning east to attack Russia all in a space of six weeks. These plans clearly show that all the major powers in Europe were itching for a fight and only waiting for the slightest provocation to justify themselves. The Franco-Prussian hostility the hostility stemmed from the Franco-Prussian war of 1870 and remained the most constant factor in international relations up to the outbreak of the war in 1914. After the war France lost Alsace and Lorraine in a humiliating peace treaty which caused her to view and deal with Germany with both hatred and hostility. France and Germany became permanent enemies as a result. In 1885 and 1886 there was danger of war breaking out between Germany and France as French nationalism was whipped up for a revenge war by General Georges Ernest Boulanger whose influence was so profound he started a movement called Boulangerism during his apogee. In 1905 and 1911 the continued hostility between France and Germany nearly precipitated into war over Morocco. Although on these occasions war was avoided the tension between the Triple Alliance and Triple Entente powers increased. The tensions drew the alliances into a habit as Austria-Hungary found itself on the side of Germany while Britain and Russia supported France. When Germany learnt of the friendship between France and Russia in 1895 she concluded that it was aggressive and meant to create two fronts against her in the event of a war breaking out i.e. the western front of France and the eastern front of Russia. Germany’s Schlieffen plan was based on the presumption that Russia would automatically come to the aide of France in the event of a war thus necessitating the need to defeat France quickly before turning to a much bigger Russia. The plan was based on the premise that France was smaller and thus could be defeated quickly while Russia is much bigger such that it would take longer fore her to mobilise her forces in the event of war. When war did eventually broke out Germany acted to this plan and she invaded France via the Belgium (Belgium was neutral) route which made Britain to enter the war. The shifting balance of power. Germany was a great emerging economic power but was not recognized by the other powers such as Britain, Russia, Austria-Hungary and France who had hitherto dominated the world’s diplomatic affairs. Germany’s desire to gain her rightful status upset the balance of power thus threatening stability and the pre- established order. Germany built her army and navy as she protested that she was surrounded by the Triple Entente powers who constantly sought to prevent her expansion. Such activities exacerbated the hostilities existing amongst Europe’s nations. 



TREATY/ALLIANCE
COUNTRIES INVOLVED
YEAR SIGNED
Drakainsband
Germany, Russia and Austria Hungary.
1873
Dual alliance
Germany and Austria Hungary
1878
Triple Alliance
Germany, Austria Hungary and Italy
1882
Reinsurance
Germany and Russia
1887
Anglo-Japanese
Britain and Japan
1902
Entente-Cordi ale
Britain and France
1904
Triple Entente
Britain, France and Russia
1907

 


Colonial rivalry.
There were clashes between European powers over colonies for example France and Britain over Egypt , France and Germany over Morocco and France and Italy over Tunisia. However almost all these disputes were solved peacefully. A few of these disputes however nearly caused war and increased the tensions between the two camps. Also Russia and Japan were fighting over China. In 1902 Japan and Britain had signed The Anglo-Japanese treaty, a military agreement in which each member assistance in the event of war. This could have caused war had Britain who supported Japan or France who supported Russia had become involved in this war. Other European powers with interests in China would likely had joined in this war.

The First Moroccan crisis (1905)
[Crisis of Tangier]
Britain recognized French claim in Morocco when they signed the Entente Cordiale. France had interests in Morocco and desired to make it part of her empire while Germany was also interested in Morocco resulting in conflict between the two. In March 1905 Kaiser Wilhelm II (William II) of Germany visited Tangier in Morocco. He made speeches which undermined and challenged French interests:
1. He proclaimed that he supported Sultan of Morocco’s sovereignty meaning he deemed Morocco free and Independent.
2. He said that all European powers had equal rights in Morocco but under the Sultan.
3. He asserted that Germany had growing interests in Morocco and she was prepared to protect them.
4. He declared that he was going to maintain the independence of the Sultan.
This resulted in a confrontation with France who had Russia and Britain as her allies under the Triple Entente who came to her aide. Germany on the other hand had Austria-Hungary and Italy as its allies under the Triple Alliance who came to her aide. Germany’s aggression was calculated since she knew Russia would not come to the aide of France as Russia was still recovering from her defeat at the hands of Japan in the Russo- Japanese war. Germany also wanted to test the strength of the Triple Entente. The crisis was settled by a conference in Algeciras in Spain in 1906.

Algeciras conference.
It was agreed that the state bank of Morocco was to be controlled by France, Germany, Spain and Britain. The policing of Morocco was shared between France and Spain. The interests of all powers in Morocco were guaranteed. France was left to proceed with its peaceful penetration and Germany was given trading rights. N.B The aggression by Germany that brought about the crisis cemented the Triple Entente resulting in the members being closer with one another than ever before and even more ready for war. The crisis also increased tensions amongst the major powers as it completed the diplomatic division of Europe into two hostile camps.

The second Moroccan crisis (1911)
[Agadir crisis/ Panther crisis]
In April 1911 a revolt broke out against the Sultan and foreign nationals. The French with its policing powers marched to Fez to protect European residents. The French capitalized on the incident to annex Morocco. Other powers like Britain accepted the move but Germany warned France that the move was against the agreement reached at the Algeciras conference. Germany send a gun boat, the SM Panther to Agadir. The Kaiser demanded compensation for growing French influence in Morocco. Britain did not want to annex Morocco because this threatened her shipping interests and she was supported by Russia. In November Germany and France signed the treaty of Paris.

Treaty of Paris
France was given Morocco and Germany was given Guinea and Cameroon. Germany’s aggression frightened other powers who became closer and the crisis further strained the relations between the Entente and Alliance camps.

Balkan nationalism.
This is by far the largest cause of the First World War as Turkey was being destroyed by nationalism. Serbia was the first to break away from Turkey in 1804 followed by Greece in 1829. Serbian and Bulgarian independence was recognized by the great powers great powers in the 1878 at The Congress of Berlin. Austria-Hungary was also battling with fragmentation as the Magyars fought for independence from Austria- Hungary in 1866. The Slavs of Bosnia and Herzegovina also threatened to destroy Austria- Hungary as they wanted to unite with Serbia instead. Serbia waned to incorporate all the Slave people into one Slave state of Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Archduke Ferdinand was murdered by Slav nationalists (The Black Hand) who wanted to break away from Austria and to join Serbia. The conflict between Slav nationalism and German Nationalism ultimately led to war. Serbian nationalism was of greater danger to Austria-Hungary because it was backed by Russia as Russia supported Pan Slavism whilst Germany was defending Pan Germanism of the German empire and Austria-Hungary. Germany and Austria-Hungary had a Pan German alliance thus Germany came into the Sarajevo conflict because she could not allow Austria- Hungary to be destroyed by Pan Slavism.

The Bosnian crisis of 1908
Austria-Hungary had been given Bosnia and Herzegovina to administer at The Berlin Conference of 1878. Serbia which had an interest in these two territories was disappointed and encouraged the Young Turk revolution that sought to overthrow the Sultan Hamid II and bring about liberal reforms. Austria-Hungary took advantage of the ensuing chaos. Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina whilst Russia annexed the Straits. Serbia mobilized her troops against Austria-Hungary. Russia threatened to join Serbia against Austria-Hungary. Germany threatened war against Russia if Russia supported Serbia and this nearly brought about the outbreak of a general war. Russia backed out because she had not yet recovered from the Russo- Japanese war. Serbia backed out because she could not fight Austria alone. This increased the strain between the Triple Alliance and Triple Entente camp.

The First Balkan war
Italy went to war with Turkey over Tripoli which she had annexed and the Albanians took advantage of the situation to revolt against Turkey. The Turkish Army mutinied in sympathy of the revolt. The Balkan nationals made up of Greece, Serbia, Montenegro and Bulgaria took advantage to eject Turkey from the Balkans and formed the First Balkan League to fight Turkey. They agreed that Serbia would annex Albania so as to have access to the sea. Greece would occupy Thrace and Salonika. Bulgaria would take a larger part of Macedonia and the rest of Macedonia would be shared equally amongst the members. To the surprise of Europe the league won the war against Turkey. A conference was called in London in May 1913. The treaty of London (1913) Germany and Austria-Hungary blamed Russia for causing the Balkan war. Austria-Hungary did not like Serbian expansion because both had large Slav populations especially Bosnia and Herzegovina. Germany feared that the Balkan league would continue to fight Austria- Hungary to take back Bosnia and Herzegovina. At the conference Austria-Hungary blocked Serbia’s annexation of Albania and a new state of Albania was created. Greece was also prevented from annexing Valona. Serbia and Greece gained small portions of Macedonia. Greece won Thrace and Salonika. Bulgaria acquired the largest part of Macedonia. At the conference Russia supported Serbia and it in turn got support from France. Germany and Italy supported Austria- Hungary. Britain pretended to be neutral.

The second Balkan war
The other states were jealous of Bulgaria’s acquisition of a large part of Macedonia. Serbia and Greece asked Bulgaria to share Macedonia with them but Bulgaria refused. Greece and Serbia formed the Second Balkan League and declared war on Bulgaria in June 1913. They were joined by Romania. Turkey rejoined the war on the side of Bulgaria to regain lost territory and managed to regain Adrianople. The war was ended by the treaty of Bucharest 1913. The treaty of Bucharest (1913) Bulgaria lost her former gains of the Aegean coast and Adrianople to Turkey. The war pushed Europe closer to the Great War. Russia supported Serbia and the success of the Balkan war was interpreted as Russian success against Austria Hungary and Germany. Bulgaria supported the Triple Alliance and joined them immediately when the war broke out in 1914. Serbia had gained the most territory and had used French artillery in the war which was a clear assistance by the Triple Entente powers. Austria-Hungary was troubled by this and made up her mind to destroy Serbia as soon as possible. This explains why the events of the Sarajevo assassination led to an all-out war. The events of the contributed greatly towards the outbreak of the war but the Sarajevo assassination was the proverbial match that sparked the outbreak of war.

Sarajevo assassination
In June 1914 Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne toured Bosnia. On June 28 he and his wife Sophia were murdered by a Bosnian nationalist called Gavrilo Principe Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia and issued an ultimatum to her. The demands in set in the ultimatum were: -Serbia was to ban all nationalist movements in Bosnia and Herzegovina. -Serbia was to investigate and hand over the culprits of the assassination. -Serbia was to sack all government officials which Austria-Hungary opposed. -Serbia was to allow Austrian officials into Serbian to oversee and ensure that the ultimatum was complied with. Serbia accepted all the terms except the fourth which effectively meant her losing her independence. On July 28 Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. On July 30 Russia mobilized her forces in support of Serbia. On July 31 Germany demanded that Russia demobilize within 24 hours. Russia failed to demobilize and Germany declared war on Russia on August 1. On August 3, Germany declared war on France and invaded Belgium on 4 August. Germany followed the Schlieffen plan as it invaded Belgium in order to attack France. Britain then declared war on Germany.

Aims of the Schlieffen Plan
1. To avoid fighting war on two fronts i.e. the western front of France and the eastern Front with Russia.
2. To defeat France in 6 weeks.
3. To capture French channels so that the British army would not land on the greater continent of Europe.
4. To concentrate German troops in the attack and defeat Russia after the defeat of France.
5. To pass through Belgium on the way to France.
6. To capture Brussels in 6 days
7. To cross Belgium in 12 days and capture Paris on day 18.
8. To to turn and capture Russia before she mobilizes
9. France to attack on the wrong front
10. Crush France against the fortresses of Lorraine

The Schlieffen Plan.
Germany believed that in the event of war with Russia, France would assist as it was a member of the Dual Entente. It also believed that any war with France would bring Russia to her aid. In the plan Germany would have to defeat France first in a within a period of 6 weeks as it was smaller and concentrated then divert its forces to the East to deal with Russia. Germany believed that Russia would take time to mobilize. Germany would invade France through Belgium which was a neutral country at the time. The violation of Belgian neutrality brought Britain into the war. France came into the war immediately because she had been attacked. From this it is clear that the Schlieffen plan contributed to the war also as it brought in more countries into the conflict. The role of individual countries in the outbreak of the war. Serbia Her extreme nationalism could be blamed for the outbreak of the war. It backed terrorist movement in Bosnia leading to the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand. She did not fear her neighbor Austria- Hungary since she had had victory in the Balkan wars with the support of Russia and France thus emboldening her. France She wanted to avenge the defeat she had suffered at the hands of Germany in the Franco-Prussian war so as to recover Alsace and Lorraine. France gave unconditional support to Russia and it also took part in the arms race. Austria-Hungary It caused a lot of tension with its involvement in the Balkan wars especially the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Austria was also the first to declare war and attack Serbia. Britain She competed fiercely with Germany for naval supremacy and the arms race which worsened international relations. Britain declared war on Germany when Germany invaded Belgium thus bringing herself in a multidimensional war. Britain gave Russian unlimited support. Germany Some blame her for solely causing the First World for because of her many acts of aggression for example the naval race and the Agadir crisis. She gave unconditional support to Austria-Hungary. She declared war on Russia and France. She invaded Belgium which was a neutral country. She had planned for the was as early as 1905 as evidenced by the Schlieffen plan. German desired a raise in her status in the world which led to tensions and competition. Why Britain joined the war? Because Germany violated Belgian neutrality. This may have been a pretext and the real reason could have been fear of Germany. Britain feared Germany’s growing ambitions. These were shown by Germany’s participation in the naval race with Britain. Germany’s move in Turkey shown by the construction of the Berlin- Baghdad were viewed suspiciously by Britain. Germany was giving the impression that it was on a course to conquer the world. Britain did not allow Germany to conquer the channel as it was doing via the invasion of Belgium. If the France had been defeated the Channel would fall into the hands of Germany and Britain would be in danger. Britain therefore entered the war for her own security. However, this security was tied with the rest of Europe thus she joined the rest of the Entente powers. Britain wanted to maintain her status as the leading global power and economic powerhouse. Why Russia joined the war? It had to secure its economic interests in the Balkans. It wanted to build and maintain its status as a powerful nation. It felt it had the obligation to assist the Triple Entente so as to maintain its status as a great power and so it would not be isolated. Why Germany joined the war? She wanted to achieve permanent security on the western and eastern fronts. She also wanted to fulfill her expansion program of annexation and expansion. Why Austria-Hungary joined the war? It wanted to maintain its status as a great power in the world. It wanted to end Slav nationalism that was being led by Serbia. War on the western front. The war began according to the Schlieffen plan on the western front however it was to change following unexpected challenges. Germany invaded France through Belgium and hope to force France to surrender within six weeks. Germany also according to plan invaded through the north east and veered around to the south towards France. Belgian resistance to the Germans proved stiffer than expected thus delaying their progress in the process. The French also mobilized their troops faster than the Germans had anticipated. The British also came to the assistance of the French earlier than had been anticipated by Germans further hindering Germany’s progress. The Russians mobilized faster than expected forcing the Germans to abandon the plan and send a lot of troops to the western from earlier. Bulgaria joined the war on the side of the central powers in 1915. Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary by the secret treaty of the Entente allies in August in 1916. Romania joined war on the Entente side but was quickly defeated by Germany and Austria-Hungary.


 

The Battle of Marne River
For close to a month the German forces moved across Belgium down into France.
It was a difficult march in hot wealth travelling distances of about 64 km/day.
The Germans were stopped by the French at the battle of Marne River by General Geoffrey and General Gallieni.
At the battle of Marne the French called everyone to the front including ordinary women and men to try and force the Germans back to the River Aisne.
Soldiers and other fighters were rushed to the battle front by all means of transport available.
The French used the famous battle cry “Ils ne passeront pas! “ (They shall not pass!) As they impeded German progress.
New weapons
Two battles were fought in Belgium i.e. the

First and Second battle of Ypres.
In 1915 the second battle of Ypres the Germans used poisonous gas.
At the battle of Somme the British used the Tank successfully for the first time.
Both Britain and Germany used airplanes in the war for the first time.
Flame throwers were also used extensively in the First World War.

Trench Warfare.
When the Germans were defeated at the battle of Marne River they retreated to the River Aisne about 48 km from Paris and dug trenches as a defensive mechanism against further advances by the French.
The French and the British also dug their own trenches to protect themselves from machine gun fire and explosions from artillery shells.
Battles were fought from trenches resulting in what has been known ever since as trench warfare.
Trench warfare prolonged the war: it was fought on the western front from December 1914 to November of 1918.
The trenches were surrounded by barbed wire and snipers shot at the enemy if they ventured out.
Soldiers died in the trenches and it was difficult to bury them.
It was also difficult to supply food and medicines to the soldiers.
Disease and hunger afflicted soldiers on both sides.
No side made any gains as any attack was quickly followed by a counter attack.
As a result the war on the western front became a stalemate and took longer than expected.

The battle of Verdun

This was planned battle in which the Germans led by Von Moltke tried to break through Verdun in February 1916 up to December the same year, a French pivot since the beginning of the war.
A bout 4 million men faced each other in the trenches.
19 divisions of heavily armed Germans bombed Verdun with artillery.
The French forces led by General Petain resisted.
The British rushed to assist the French.
In that battle the French lost 350 000 men while the Germans lost 330 000 men but the Germans failed to capture Verdun.

The Battle of Somme

In July 1916 the British attacked Somme a German fortress in order to reduce pressure on Verdun.
The British had invented the tank and used it for the first time against the Germans.
At this battle the Germans had heavier casualties losing 500 000 men while the British had lesser casualties losing about 200 000.
The British however failed to make a breakthrough and the war remained a stalemate while trench warfare continued.

The Gallipoli campaign
In November 1914 Turkey joined the war on the side of the Central Powers.
Turkey subsequently closed the straits to the Russian ships such that the supplies from western allies could not reach Russia.
Russia as a result faced a shortage of weapons and food thus edging closer to defeat.
The western allies therefore decided to capture the Straits to open up supply lines and ease pressure on Russia.
In March 1915 Britain and France sent a powerful naval expedition to the Dardanelles but it was heavily defeated.
In April the allies tried to land on the Gallipoli peninsula to capture the Straits through the
Black Sea but Turkey already knew of the plans and destroyed the allied forces as they landed.
The allies lost 250 000 men but the Straits remained closed.
Russian remained without food supplies and weapons.

The war at sea (The battle of Jutland)
The greatest tension before the war had been caused by Germany’s ambition to build a navy that was stronger than that of Britain.
As such when war broke out there was great expectations of great seas battles between Germany and Britain.
This did not happen as the two navies just watched and threatened each other without much warfare between them.
Germany feared to move into the high seas.
The first major sea battle was fought at Jutland in May 31, 1917.
The British fleet stationed at Scupa Flow and
Rosyth was to be tested by the German high sea fleet stationed in the north seas of Germany.
The British and French navies had up to now maintain their supremacy on the high seas and kept their routes open.
At the same time they had successfully blockaded the Central powers and stopped their trade with the outside world.
To break this cycle Admiral Sheer of Germany tried to destroy the Grand fleet in May 1916.
A small force under Admiral Hipper went out to sea and made contact with Admiral Beattys force of the same size and went into battle.
The main forces under Jellico (British) and Sheer (Germany) rushed to the battle field.
The British suffered heavier losses than the Germans.
The Germans withdrew back to their bases under cover of the darkness on the night of May 31 and remained inactive until 1918.
The main contribution of the navies was the blockade of the Central Powers by the British and French navies.
The French protected their interest in the Mediterranean Sea whilst the British protected theirs and French interests in the English Channel and North Sea.
The British also blockaded the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans to protect their trade routes.
The Central powers lost their markets, trade and important sources of raw materials as they were prevented from reaching German ports.
This caused serious shortages, high food prices and unrest among citizens.

Submarine warfare.
In response to the Anglo-French supremacy Germany embarked on submarine warfare against her enemies.
Since Britain depended on foreign trade Germany decided to destroy this on the high seas to collapse her economy and force her to surrender.
The submarines operated in the Red Sea, the English Channel and the North Sea and especially in the Atlantic to cut off British and French trade with America.
In April 1915 the submarines sank a British ship Lusitania with 200 people.
118 of them were American citizens.
America protested and this strained relations with Germany.
In 1916 and 1917 the goods sank by the German submarines increasingly threatened the British economy and security.
Britain developed minesweepers and the convoy system to combat the submarine menace.
In response Germany declared unrestricted submarine warfare to destroy both combatant and neutral shipping indiscriminately.
For this reason America entered the war on the side of Britain.

Collapse of the Central Powers.
Russia had collapsed and left the war in 1917.
The Germans therefore diverted their attention to the western front to deliver a knockout blow on France and Britain.
Germany calculated that with the use of U-boats and the bringing of all the soldiers to the western front Britain and France would be knocked out before Americans arrived.
The Americans were also brought into the war by the Zimmerman telegraph intercepted and decoded by the British.
The Telegraph had been sent to Mexico by the German foreign minister intending to assist Mexico to recover Texas, Arizona and New Mexico conquered by the USA in 1848.
Germany stepped up its submarine warfare destroying 870 000 tonnes of shipping in April alone.
Britain was left with food that would last only for six months.
Britain used the new anti-submarine devices such as hydrophones, depth charges and airplanes to spot submarines as well as armed escorts to protect merchant ships to reduce the U-boat menace.
America was assisted by the British and French navies to carry American troops to Europe.

The effect of American entrance into the war.
The start of 1918 provided a turning point in the war as American power was being felt in Europe.
Her industries manufactured weapons, ammunition and food for the allies.
Fresh American troops assisted the exhausted French and British troops.
The allies reorganized their forces under one high command.
The Americans in Europe were placed under
General Pershing.
The British forces were under General Haig but all the forces were under General Foch (of France).
By September 1918 the Germans were retreating and they were never given a chance to reorganize.
The Austro-Hungarian Empire collapsed in October and Germany was left to fight the war alone as Italy had been revived and defeated Austria-Hungary in the south.
The Germans fought hard but lacked manpower as compared to the allies with increasing American forces.
The Germans had no reply to the effective tanks that were operating against them.
The attacks on Germany went according to plan and on November 9 the Kaiser abdicated and went to Holland, a neutral country.
Germany surrendered on November 11 1918 and the First World War came to an end.

Reasons for Germany’s defeat.
Germany fought the war on two main fronts. With the Russians on the Eastern Front and the French and British on the western front which meant dividing her army into two. She also had to assist Austria-Hungary to defeat Serbia and fight Italy on the southern front which drastically increased the number of fronts. Had Germany’s army been concentrated in one place, she might have won the war well before the Americans joined it.
The two Sick Man of Europe: Turkey and Austria-Hungary became liabilities rather than allies to Germany. The people in Austria showed little enthusiasm to fight for their masters being more concerned with their own independence rather than the war against the allies with whom they had no problem. Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia caused the disintegration of Austria-Hungary leading to Germany’s defeat. By 1914 Turkey had lost most of its European territory. The Arabian countries of The Persian Gulf, Arabia, Palestine, Lebanon and Syria were assisted to gain their independence by the British. Instead of fighting the allies Turkey spend most of its time fighting with its own people.
The control of the High Seas by the allies led to Germany’s eventual defeat. The allies blocked Germany trade and deprived her of essential raw materials while they retained their own access. The allies managed to get reinforcements from the colonies while they blocked Germany from doing the same. Shortages of food began in Germany, prices increased, and the Germans starved. On the other hand arms and ammunition flowed from America giving the allies an advantage.
Allied High command allowed the allies to place their troops under unified control in order to provide them with a concentrated strategy under General Foch. Coordination increased effectiveness and offense and defense were synchronized to ensure the Germans never got time to recover.
The major reason for Germany’s defeat was the entry of America into the war on the side of the allies. Russia’s defeat and subsequent withdrawal had weakened the allies but the US more than filled in the gap with her vast industrial power, an increasingly powerful navy and fresh soldiers. By the time the war ended the U.S. had over 2 million men deployed in Europe. America also lend her allies money to buy essential materials for the war time needs. Weapons and money were sent on credit. The merchant navies delivered essential supplies and grains were also sent to her European allies. Her warships helped to escort merchant fleets across the Atlantic.

 


Political effects.
The collapse of four dynasties in Europe and their replacement by new governments. Turkey (The Ottoman Empire) collapsed and it was turned into several states. Austria-Hungary became two states and the Hapsburg Empire collapsed and in the process Greece, Serbia, Poland and Romania gained full independence. Germany’s Empire collapsed into the Weimer Republic and the Bolsheviks seized power in Russia.
Change from dictatorships took place in countries like Germany, Italy and Yugoslavia. These were later replaced with other dictatorships for example Fascism in Germany and Italy.
Change in balance of power as Russia, Japan and the USA became new world powers.
Spread of nationalism outside Europe as it spread into India and Africa.
Women got voting rights, change of governmental systems in most countries from autocratic ruler ship to democratic ruler ship, introduction of world organisations e.g. LON, creation of new states e.g. Poland and Yugoslavia.

Social effects
Loss of lives as nearly 17 million people died in the war.
Breaking down of families as fathers and sons left their homes to go to war.
War inflicted injuries with an estimated casualty of 30 million.
Women gained the right to vote in elections after the war.
Homelessness as a lot of homes were destroyed during the war.
The use of family planning techniques emerged after this period.
Women became emancipated as they started to work in factories due to Labour shortages.
Orphans were left by parents who died in the war.
There was hunger due to food shortages as agricultural and manufacturing production had been destroyed by the war.
Decrease in population as most people lost their lives e.g. in France, Germany, Austria.
Outbreak of diseases e.g. the Spanish flue, cholera, typhoid.
Poverty, introduction of new drugs and medicine.
 
Economic effects
War debts accumulated as European powers borrowed heavily to finance the war effort.
High unemployment rates as agriculture and manufacturing were disrupted while many people returning from the war needed employment.
Infrastructure such as buildings, roads, ports and industries were destroyed.
There was a decline in European economic dominance as the U.S, Japan and Asia took over African markets.
High taxation and inflation as taxes were increased to finance the war and also to pay back the war debts.
Food shortages resulted as industries and the agriculture sector had been re-purposed to cater for war needs.
Trade unions resulted with workers trying to fight the bad working conditions in the industry.

Scientific developments to develop equipment for the war and also mass production of goods.

 

The treaties of World War I

The following major treaties were signed at the end of the First World War.
1. The treaty of Versailles. (Germany 1919)
2. The treaty of Saint Germaine (Austria 1919) otherwise known as the treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye.
3. The treaty of Trianon (Hungary 1920)
4. The Treaty of Sevres (Turkey 1920) replaced the treaty f Luasanne.
5. The treaty of Neuilly (Bulgaria)
The treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed between Russia and Germany in 1918 to end Russia’s participation in World War I.

Important figures/countries at the peace treaties.
  1. Woodrow Wilson (U.SA)
  2. Lloyd George (Britain)
  3. George Clemenceau (France)
  4. Victor Orlando (Italy)
  5. Von Stressman (Germany)

Woodrow Wilson’s 14 points.
1. There should be no more secret treaties.
2. There should be freedom of navigation of the high seas.
3. Countries should encourage free trade.
4. Armaments were to be reduced.
5. The interests of the people living in colonies shall be taken into account whenever determining the fate and countries’ claims on colonies.
6. German troops should leave Russia.
7. German troops should leave Belgium.
8. Alsace and Lorraine should be returned to France.
9. A readjustment of the borders of Italy should be made along clearly recognizable lines of nationality.
10. The people of Austria-Hungary should be given the opportunity to be independent and sovereign.
11. Serbia, Montenegro and Romania should be evacuated and their territories restored and Serbia should be granted access to the sea.
12. People of the Turkish Empire who were not Turks should be given independence.
13. An independent Poland should be created and given access to sea.
14. An international Organisation should be set up to protect the independence of all states.





The main interests of the major representatives at the peace treaties
Georges Clemenceau
He wanted to see Germany crippled economically, politically and militarily so that Germany would no longer be a threat to France again.
He saw this as an opportunity to revenge the humiliation France had suffered as a result of the Franco-Prussian war.

Woodrow Wilson
He wanted a more peaceful world.
He suggested his 14 points be used as guiding principles by the peace makers at the Paris Peace conference to achieve lasting peace.
He did not want Germany to be treated harshly because he foresaw the problems of such actions.

David Lloyd George
Please note that his surname was Lloyd-George and his first name David. Most history textbooks make the mistake of mentioning his name as Lloyd.
He wanted Germany to recover so she could trade with Britain.
He agreed with Clemenceau that Germany should be punished but not the extreme extent that Clemenceau wanted.

Victor Orlando (Italian name: Vittorio Emanuele Orlando)
Often known by his anglicized name Victor in history textbooks. You can use this name or his actual Italian name.
He wanted land promised to Italy by the Allied Powers before he joined the war on the side of the allied powers.

Problems encountered by the statesmen during the peace conference.
1. Lack of unity of purpose.
-The statesmen lacked unity as Wilson and Clemenceau were on extreme opposites and Lloyd George acted as a voice of reason between the two.
2. Pressure from the people back home.
-The statesmen had to make decisions which met with the expectations of the people at home for example Lloyd George had promised to deal harshly with Germany during the 1918 elections so he was compelled to fulfill the promise.
-The French wanted revenge against Germany and the venue in Paris exerted more pressure on the conference since it was on their homeland resulting in an environment not conducive to the peace talks.
3. The attitude of the United States of America.
-The Americans were not interested in European affairs so Woodrow Wilson was there against the wishes of his people.
4. Chaotic Environment
-The general situation in Europe was tumultuous at the time the conference was being conducted.
5. Fear of Communism
-The statesmen feared that communism which had started in Russia, would spread to other nations in Europe so they wanted to quickly make pace before communism spread in Europe.

The peace treaties.

The Treaty of Versailles (Germany 1919)
It was signed by Germany in 1919 after six months of negotiation at the Paris Peace Conference.
The terms of the treaty of Versailles are divided into the territorial and non-territorial terms.

Territorial terms
Alsace and Lorraine were to be handed back to France.
The Rhineland was to be demilitarized and to be occupied by allied troops.
The Saar basin was to be administered by the League of Nations commission for 15 years.
Poland was to receive Upper Silesia and Possen.
Poland was to become independent.
Poland was to get Polish Corridor giving her access to the sea.
Part of Danzig was placed under the League of Nations as a free city.
Eupen, Morenset and Malmedy were to be taken by Belgium.
North Schleswig was to be given back to Denmark.
Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Finland were to be independent.
Memel was given to Lithuania.
The union between Austria and Germany was forbidden
The Carolyn Islands (sometimes spelt Caroline Islands), were to be transferred to Japan while Cameroon and Togoland were to be given to France.
Samoa went to New Zealand.
Germany lost most her territories in Europe and all her overseas colonies.

Non territorial provisions
The disarmament clause -Germany was to reduce her army to 100 000 men, with no conscription, no heavy artillery and no poison gas and to reduce her battleships to 6 light cruisers , 12 destroyers, 12 torpedo boats and no submarines. The navy was limited to 15 000 men. Germany was also to disband its air force.
The war guilt clause- Germany was made to accept that she was responsible for causing the outbreak of the First World War and the resulting destruction of European infrastructural destruction and loss of life.
Germany was supposed to pay £6 600 million to the allies for the losses and damages incurred during the course of the war.

Fairness of this treaty
Germany had done the same thing to the Russians after the Russians had conceded defeat at the treaty of Brest-Litovsk and which might be taken as proof that had Germany won the war she would have extracted the same concessions from the allied powers.
Germany gave unconditional support to Austria-Hungary which encouraged the later to act aggressively to other countries contributing to the outbreak of the war.
Germany was partly responsible for bringing about the outbreak of the war: she had a war plan (the Schlieffen Plan), participated aggressively in an arms race and naval race with Britain signifying that she wanted war.
Germany’s aggressive actions such as the First and Second Moroccan crisis spurred other powers to form alliances against her.
Germany can be blamed for declaring war on Russia and attacking Belgium on her way to attack France.
Germany’s harsh treatment of France in The Treaty of Frankfurt were turned around on her in this treaty.

Unfairness of the treaty.
Germany was not represented at the peace conference yet she was asked to accept and sign the treaty so the terms were dictated to her.
Nationality was not considered when Germany lost her territories which had German nationals.
The amount of reparations imposed on Germany was impractical and un-affordable and resulted in the complete collapse of the Germany economy a fact Hitler seized upon to rise into power.
Germany was not the only country that caused the war: Britain, Russia, France, Austria-Hungary, Serbia among other countries all played their part.
The unification of Germany and Italy created large states which led to competition and aggression between European states thus leading to war.
The Berlin conference of 1878 which divided European territory also contributed to the outbreak of the war.
Germany was unfairly forbidden from joining with Austria.
Germany was forced to reduce her army to about 1/3 of its original size leaving her feeling vulnerable.
The seizure of her colonies was a clear act of sharing the spoils of war rather than an act of justice.

The treaty of Saint Germain (Austria 1919)
Territorial terms
Hungary became independent of Austria.
A new state of Czechoslovakia was created from the Austro-Hungary Empire.
Galicia was given to Poland.
Bukovina was given to Romania
Istria and Tyrol were given to Italy.
Austria lost about 4 million Germans to her neighbors.
Dalmatia and Carniola were ceded to Yugoslavia
Her total area was reduced from about 300 000 square kilometers to about 78 000 square kilometers.

Non territorial provisions
Autocracy was banned and Austria became a republic.
The Austrian army was reduced to 30 000 volunteer men with no navy.
She was to pay reparations of a “large sum of money” but the amount was never set because the country went bankrupt before the amount could be determined.
Austria was also forced to accept causing World War I
An alliance with Germany was forbidden.

Fairness of the treaty
As with Germany Austria had played a big role in bringing about the outbreak of World War I for example the invasion of Serbia over the death of just one man!
However she was not the only partly responsible as Germany, Britain, Russia, France and Serbia played their own parts.
She was not represented at the conference but she was just forced to sign.

The treaty of Trianon (Hungary 1920)

Territorial provisions
Slovakia and part of Lithuania were given to Czechoslovakia.
Bosnia and Croatia were also given to Czechoslovakia.
3 million Magyars were placed under foreign rule.
Transylvania was given to Romania.
Burgenland was given to Austria.

Non territorial provisions
She lost about two thirds of her territory and populations from about 20 million to 8 million.
Her army was reduced to 35 000 volunteer men and 3 patrol boats.
She was to pay reparations of 200 million gold crowns to the allies as she was found guilty of causing the war.
She was forbidden to unite with Austria.

Fairness and unfairness of the treaty
Hungary’s aggressive behavior was partly responsible for the outbreak of the war.
As with the other treaties Hungary was not solely responsible for causing the war.
Nationality was not considered when giving out her territories to other countries.
She lost access to the sea.
“Tolls” made railway transport for Hungary expensive.
She lost her most important financial institutions with the loss in territory.

The treaty of Sevres (Turkey 1920)

Territorial provisions
Syrian and Lebanon were given to France.
Iran and Transjordan were taken by Britain.
Arabia gained Independence.
Eastern Thrace went to Greece.
Cyprus went to Britain.

Non territorial provisions
The army was limited to 50 000 soldiers, seven sail boats and six torpedo boats.
They were forbidden to have an air force
There were no reparations to be paid.
The allies had the right to reform the electoral system of the Ottoman Empire.
The treaty of Lausanne later replaced the treaty of Sevres
Turkey regained some of her territory at the expense of Greece.
River Mamsta was declared to be a frontier between Greece and Turkey.
Eastern Thrace was returned to Turkey.
Italy kept Docleconese Islands and Britain’s ownership of Cyprus was affirmed.
A customs union for former Turkish people was created and taxes were abolished.
Arrangements were made to send all Greeks in Turkey and all Turks in Greece to their respective countries.

Treaty of Neuilly (Bulgaria 1919)

Territorial terms
Bulgaria lost her territories along east-western boundary to Yugoslavia.
She lost access to the Augean sea to Greece.

Non-territorial provisions
Her army was reduced to 20 000 volunteers, four torpedo boats and no air force.
She was to pay reparations of 2.25 billion francs.
N.B All the terms of these treaties were harsh, vindictive and dictated to the defeated central powers and their allies.

 


Origins and Formation of the League
The League of Nations (LON) was set up in Geneva the capital of Switzerland.
It was the brainchild of Woodrow Wilson.
It was an association of countries which were brought together by their common ideas to maintain peace in the world.
However, some important nations did not join the league when it was formed although it was an international Organisation for example Germany was not allowed to join the league until 1926 because she had been deemed to be guilty of causing the First World War.
Germany later left the league in 1933 when the armament exercise was initiated.
The USA never joined the league in line with their aversion and fear of being entangled in European affairs.

Aims of the League
To maintain peace and security throughout the world
To settle disputes through peaceful means.
To reduce armaments to the lowest level.
To protect member states from aggression.
To prevent secret diplomacy in treaties or alliances a thing that had caused The First World War.
To promote health of mankind.
To control drug trafficking.
To give financial support to countries in need.
To promote general labor interest.
To supervise the administration of mandated territories like Danzig.
To safeguard the welfare of minorities and refugees
To encourage economic co-operation amongst member states

Organisation of the League

1. The General Assembly
The General Assembly as the Central body was made up of representatives from all member States. They met once a year in Geneva, Switzerland.
It was more like the parliament of the League of Nations, all of its affairs were debated by this organ.  Each Member State had 3 representatives in this chamber however it was accorded only one vote. 
Functions of the General Assembly.
Was the debating chamber of the league and each member had one vote.
It met annually and discussed issues affecting world peace.
It handled the finances of the league and drafted the budget.
It elected the non-permanent members of the council to join the Council. (see below).
It decided on general policies of the league.
It admitted new members of the league.
It was supposed to raise an army for the league when needed.

2. The council
It was a much smaller body which met more often, at least 3 times a year. It must be noted that this was the most important body of LON as it is always referred as the Cabinet of LON, it consisted of permanent and non-permanent member and it added more weight to the influence of the great powers.
It had 5 permanent members i.e. Britain, France, Italy, Japan and USA (Do not confuse this with the members of the Security Council. The USA never joined the League because the US Congress refused to ratify the LON Constitution)
There were 3 non-permanent members which were elected by the General Assembly and had a 3 year tenure.
Functions of the Council
It passed decisions on matters referred to it by the General Assembly
It decided on punishments for members found guilty of threatening peace for example imposing sanctions, take military action.
It submitted recommendations to the General Assembly.

3. The Secretariat
It was headed by the Secretary General.
There were women and men who kept the records of LON, they worked for this arm of LON at the headquarters of the League.
It was based in Switzerland.
Functions of the Secretariat
It looked after the paper work of the league.
Kept minutes of meetings of the proceedings of the league’s various sectors.
It implemented decisions of the League.
This arm prepared reports, organised meetings and provided documentary and office service for the LON
It carried out day to day chores of the League, for example the preparations of agenda, distributing agendas….

4. The International Court of Justice
It was based at The Hague in the Netherlands.
This arm was established in 1921
It was made up of 15 judges from different countries.
It should be noted that this court was not utilised as it only dealt with 32 cases in the 22 years of its existence, though not utilised to a greater extent as the ILO, when LON was abolished in 1946, ICJ was incorporated into the United Nations. 

Functions of the ICJ
Dealt with legal disputes amongst nations.
It interpreted treaties.
It advised the Council and the General Assembly on any matters brought to it.


5. International Labour Organisation
This organ came into existence in 1919 and it dealt with matters involving employment relations on a global scale.
Met once a year and it was made independent of LON thought it depended on the league’s funds
Members’ states sent 4 representatives (2 government officials, 1 worker representative and 1 employer representative)
It should be noted that this organ was very successful in its endeavors and when LON was abolished in 1946 it was incorporated into the United Nations. 

Functions of the ILO
To improve working conditions by doing things such as fixing working hours, setting minimum wages, leave days, employment and unemployment benefits, compensation and old age pensions.

6. Special Committees.
Refugee commission- which was responsible for monitoring the welfare of refugees.
Minorities’ commission- which was responsible for taking care of interests of small ethnic groups.
Health committee-carried out Research and Development in health and monitored diseases.
Drug trafficking commission
Disarmament commission
Mandates commission-oversaw the administration of the mandates.

Successes and Failures of the League

Successes
The ILO improved worker’s working conditions for example working hours, leave days etc.
The health commission performed invaluable work during pandemics that beset the world after the First World War most famously the influenza pandemic.
The League provided much needed help to needy states (the League rescued Austria from a financial crisis in 1924) and carried out essential famine relief work
It carried out resettlement and helped refugees for example Jews fleeing from Hitler, Greek refugees and some Russians fleeing from the often bloody Bolshevik revolution.
Major Powers managed to sign treaties guaranteeing the right for minorities to practice their own cultures and religions and use their own language.
Established international control over dangerous drugs for example opium.
It succeeded in abolishing all forms of slavery
From 1920 up to 1929 the League was largely successful in solving disputes among states for example the dispute between Finland and Sweden.
In 1920 it solved the border conflict between Germany and Poland over Upper Silesia.
In 1921 it solved the conflict between Albania and Yugoslavia.
In 1925 it solved the dispute between Bulgaria and Greece.
In 1926 it solved the Mosul conflict between Turkey and Iraq and Mosul was given to Iraq.

Failures
In 1920 the League failed to stop the Russo-Polish war.
In 1920 it failed to stop the Polish-Lithuanian war.
In 1923 it failed to solve the border dispute between Albania and Greece over Corfu Island
In 1931 it failed to stop Lithuania over the annexing of Memel.
In 1931 it failed to stop Japan from seizing the Chinese province of Manchuria (called Manchukuo in Japanese)
In 1935 It failed to stop Italy from invading Abyssinia.
It failed to stop Germany from invading Austria in 1938
It failed to stop Germany from invading part of Czechoslovakia in 1938 and the remainder in 1939
It failed to stop Germany from invading Poland in 1939
It failed to stop the outbreak of World War 22

Weaknesses of the League and reasons for some of its failures
It had no standing army so it was powerless to intervene in cases where powerful nations were aggressors (which was often the case) for example Germany’s invasions of Austria, Czechoslovakia and Poland.
The absence of major powers such as the USA meant that it lacked the proper political clout to carry out global policing duties.
It could not force nations to disarm as it had no means to do so.
The League was linked with the treaty of Versailles which led some of the nations (especially the defeated powers like Germany who had been forced to accept harsh terms) to view it as a club of conquerors bent on imposing their will on everyone else.
The desire to establish unanimous decisions limited the League’s operations.
The General Assembly’s timetable of meeting once a year gave it little time to discuss all the complex issues affecting the world.
Britain and France lacked the will and power to make the League an effective Organization.
Britain and France often disagreed on how to run the League
Member states pursued their own selfish ends to the detriment of greater good.





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